This topic contains the following sections:
I. Group Names
II. Guidelines for Hyphenation of Group Names
III. General Guidelines for Group Names
IV. Modifiers
V. General Guidelines for Modifiers
VI. Fanciful Phrases as Common Names
VII. General Guidelines for Spelling
VIII. General Guidelines for Capitalization
IX. True Group Names
The following information was originally published in: Kartesz, J.T. and J.W. Thieret. 1991. Common names for Vascular Plants: Guidelines for Use and Application. Sida 14(3): 421-434 and is included within the Synthesis with permission.
For each of the fully recognized families, genera, and species found within the TDC, a common name is provided. These common names were selected using criteria listed below. Although some individuals may disagree with these selections, they have been reviewed by numerous individuals and groups who now use them. However, as with all other aspects of the data, I welcome any suggestions.
Common names for plants are generally composed of two parts: the first is referred to as the modifier, the second as the group name. The modifier, usually quite variable, provides the uniqueness to each common name at the species level. Conversely, the group name is quite constant, establishing the identity of taxa above the species level, i.e., families, genera, subgenera, tribes, etc. Group names may not necessarily require a modifier. In some cases, for example (usually in small genera), a single word or fanciful phrase is all that is necessary to constitute a group name.
I. Group Names
Group names are often composed of a single word describing a particular family, genus, subgenus, tribe, or section. These names are of three basic types:
1. SIMPLE GROUP NAMES: Simple group names are represented by a single word, e.g.
ash aster
clover fern
grass lily
mallow mustard
orchid pine
rose rush
sedge stopper
tulip willow
2. SINGLY-COMPOUND GROUP NAMES: These are group names composed of two root-words or elements that are connected as one. Names of this type are composed of a pair of single-syllable wordsor of both a single- and a double-syllable word. For these names, both words or elements should be joined to form a single word (unless the words or elements begin and end with the same letter, e.g. saw-wort, cat-tail), e.g.
bloodleaf chickenthief
goldenrod hawkweed
hawthorn lousewort
mousetail nipplewort
quillwort rockcress
sneezeweed waternymph
3. DOUBLY-COMPOUND GROUP NAMES: Doubly-compound group names represent the most complex type. These are names composed of two or more distinct words or elements totaling four or more syllables. Each word or element of this type is separated from the others by a hyphen. These names may be subdivided into the following four categories:
a. Doubly-compound group names with two words, each word having two or more syllables, e.g.
Kenilworth-ivy monkey-flower
morning-glory popcorn-flower
pygmy-melon roving-sailor
treasure-flower trumpet-creeper
water-horehound yellow-saucers
b. Doubly-compound group names with two words, one word with three or more syllables, the other word with a single syllable, e.g.
butterfly-weed burr-cucumber
pincushion-plant rattlesnake-root
strawberry-tree scorpion-tail
unicorn-plant vegetable-sponge
c. Doubly-compound group names with three or more words, e.g.
pale alpine-forget-me-not (alpine is part of the group name, not a modifier)
arctic sweet-colt’s-foot (sweet is part of the group name, not a modifier)
NOTE: In the above examples, since the words alpine and sweet precede taxonomically incorrect group names, they are set off by hyphens. These examples differ from the two that follow, which include taxonomically incorrect groups (see Section IX for a discussion of true groups), e.g.
d. Doubly-compound group names similar to those of category c, but differ by having a “false modifier” as part of the group name, e.g.
fringed yellow star-grass (yellow is part of the group name “yellow star-grass,” and is not a true modifier)
Sonoran false prairie-clover (false is part of the group name “false prairie-clover,” and is not a true modifier)
In these cases, neither the modifier nor the “false modifier” should be connected by a hyphen to what follows.
II. Guidelines for Hyphenation of Group Names
Group names should be hyphenated only under the following conditions:
1. when the group name is composed of two words or elements, with each word or element beginning and ending with the same letter, e.g.
cat-tail desert-thorn
five-eyes saw-wort
trumpet-tree yellow-wood
2. when the group name is doubly-compound, i.e., when each word or element of a pair has two or mote syllables, or when either element of the pair has three or more syllables (see I-3a and I-3b above).
3. when the final word or element of the group name is taxonomically misapplied (unless historically spelled as a single word, e.g., buckwheat, toadflax), e.g.
star-grass (not a grass of the Poaceae)
poison-oak (not an oak of the genus Quercus)
water-lily (not a lily of the genus Lilium)
NOTE: See extended listing below for taxonomically true groups (Section IX).
4. when three or more words or elements comprise the group name (see I-3c above).
5. when a word or element of a group name includes an apostrophe, e.g.
adder’s-mouth orchid bishop’s-cap
Jacob’s-ladder mare’s-tail
Solomon’s-seal St. John’s-wort
NOTE: Hyphens should never be used for a group name to set off the words false, mock, wild, or true, since the status is already suggested by the existing modifier. Nor should the unconventional use of hyphens be included in canonizations or in titles of individuals, e.g.
Aunt Lucy (not Aunt-Lucy)
Good King Henry (not Good-King-Henry)
Maid Marian (not Maid-Marian)
St. John’s-wort (not St.-John’s-wort)
NOTE: Hyphens are also discouraged when separating proper names such as geographic place names or when setting off directions (northern, eastern, southern, and western) from other associated adjectives, e.g.
Blue Ridge gayfeather (not Blue-Ridge gayfeather)
eastern fringed catchfly (not eastern-fringed catchfly)
Great Plains bladderpod (not Great-Plains bladderpod)
Gulf Coast searocket (not Gulf-Coast searocket)
northern marsh yellowcress (not northern-marsh yellowcress)
southern Sierran pincushion (not southern-Sierran pincushion)
III. General Guidelines for Group Names
Group names should:
1. be as concise as possible;
2. never repeat the generic name except when steeped in tradition (e.g., aster, iris, mimosa);
3. reflect official state tree, shrub, and wildflower names when possible;
4. follow long-standing tradition;
5. follow names in popular use (e.g., field guides and conservation literature);
6. be unique for each genus. Understandably, this may not always be possible, e.g., when similar and well-established group names exist for different genera, e.g.
Huperzia – club-moss
Lycopodiella – club-moss
7. reflect as much ethnobotanical heritage as possible, and commemorate aboriginal usage (e.g., pawpaw, a Native American name);
8. be easily understood by avoiding or minimizing the use of technical or unfamiliar terminology;
9. avoid the word “weed” for plant genera with rare species;
10. provide unique common names for well-defined subgenera or subgroups within genera; e.g.
Erythronium: white or pink flower – fawn-lily
yellow flower – trout-lily
Ribes: spineless plants – currant
spiny or thorny plants – gooseberry
NOTE: Occasional departure from the accepted group name is also encouraged in the case of more fanciful, descriptive, or traditional common names, e.g.
camphor-daisy (for Machaeranthera phyllocephylla; departs from the group name tansy-aster)
dunedelion (for Malacothrix incana; departs from the group name desert-dandelion)
shieldplant (for Streptanthus tortuosus; departs from the group name jewelflower)
whip-poor-will-flower (for Trillium cernuum; departs from the group name wakerobin)
(Also see Section VI, Fanciful Phrases as Common Names)
11. be used in the possessive when using animal parts, e.g.
adder’s-tongue bird’s-foot-trefoil
crane’s-bill hound ‘s-tongue
ladies’-tresses mate’s-tail
pheasant’s-eye stork’s-bill
12. when using animal names, group names should not be used in the possessive, and the policies governing group names should be followed, e.g.
chickweed (not chick’s-weed) dog-fennel (not dog’s-fennel)
dog-mustard (not dog’s-mustard) rat-apple (not rat’s-apple)
thin-leaf owl-clover (not thin-leaf owl’s-clover)
IV. Modifiers
Modifiers are used to establish uniqueness for the group name. Mostly adjectival, they are of four basic types:
1. Those that provide description of plants or animal parts, size, shapes, colors, fragrances, number, and textures, e.g.
hare-foot locoweed hay-scented fern
long-leaf pine sharp-keel milk-vetch
single-leaf pinyon red-seed plantain
2. Those that provide descriptions for plant habits or habitats, e.g.
annual hedge-nettle bottom-land post oak
coastal-plain mountain-mint granite stonecrop
vernal-pool snake-lily water-thyme
3. Those that commemorate individuals, e.g.
Douglas-fir Gray’s lily
Johnson grass Thieret’s skullcap
4. Those that describe geographic locations, e.g.
African basil Blue Ridge horsebalm
Caribbean hair-sedge Carolina hemlock
eastern white pine Ozark spiderwort
V. General Guidelines for Modifiers
The following guidelines apply to the use of modifiers.
1. Modifiers composed of two words should be used in the nominative rather than the adjectival form (unless the modifiers are well established in usage, e.g., hay-scented fern), e.g.
broad-leaf lancepod (not broad-leaved lancepod)
little-tooth sedge (not little-toothed sedge)
long-leaf starwort (not long-leaved starwort)
slim-pod rush (not slim-podded rush)
tough-leaf dogwood (not tough-leaved dogwood)
2. Modifiers composed of one word should be used in the adjectival rather than the nominative form, e.g.
bearded jewelflower (not beard jewelflower)
crested wheat grass (not crest wheat grass)
jeweled rocket (not jewel rocket)
rusty lupine (not rust lupine)
spotted lupine (not spot lupine)
tufted bulrush (not tuft bulrush)
3. Modifiers should be hyphenated when describing plant or animal parts, shapes, colors, sizes, fragrances, or textures, except when referencing proper names (e.g., Ottertail Pass saxifrage), e.g.
bird-bill dayflower bird-eye speedwell
dog-tooth noseburn five-leaf cinquefoil
fox-tail prairie-clover shell-bark hickory
short-leaf cinquefoil hairy-seed crown grass
4. Modifiers describing color shades should be hyphenated, e.g.
midnight-blue clustervine
ocean-blue morning-glory
sky-blue scorpion-weed
5. When describing plant communities or plant habitats, two-word modifiers should be combined as one when both words are single-syllable (unless the first and last letters of each word are the same, e.g., sand-dune thistle), e.g.
oldfield milkvine pineland golden-aster
saltmarsh sandspurry seaside sedge
streambank leopard’s-bane roadside raspberry
6. When describing plant communities or habitats, two-word modifiers should be hyphenated when either word is composed of two or more syllables, e.g.
Arctic-tundra whitlow-grass coastal-plain dawnflower
cold-desert phlox river-bar bird’s-foot-trefoil
sandy-plain clustervine vernal-pool pincushion-plant
7. Independent, second-word modifiers should remain separated without a hyphen, e.g.
American water starwort (not American-water starwort)
dotted wild coffee (not dotted-wild coffee)
early blue violet (not early-blue violet)
leafless beaked ladies’-tresses (not leafless-beaked ladies’-tresses)
sticky purple crane’s-bill (not sticky-purple crane’s-bill)
8. Independent, third-word modifiers should also remain separated without a hyphen, e.g.
lesser yellow-throat gily-flower (not lesser-yellow-throat gily-flower)
little red-stem monkey-flower (not little-red-stem monkey-flower)
9. When commemorating individuals, possessive modifiers should always be used (unless well established in tradition e.g., Douglas-fir, Johnson grass), e.g.
Britton’s skullcap (not Britton skullcap)
Gray’s lily (not Gray lily)
Hall’s rush (not Hall rush)
Small’s skullcap (not Small skullcap)
Ward’s willow (not Ward willow)
NOTE: When both the given name and the surname of an individual are used, a hyphen is not required between the names, e.g.
Alice Eastwood’s fleabane (not Alice-Eastwood’s fleabane)
Carl Mason’s ragwort (not Carl-Mason’s ragwort)
10. When describing plant or animal parts, modifiers (unlike group names) should not be used in the possessive, e.g.
fox-tail prairie-clover (not fox’s-tail prairie-clover)
cat-claw mimosa (not cat’s-claw mimosa)
stag-horn fern (not stag’s-horn fern)
11. When designating national subdivisions (i.e., states, counties, and provinces), nominative rather than adjectival modifiers should be used, e.g.
Alaska-cedar Alberta spruce
Gila County live-forever New Mexico milkwort
Utah juniper Texasplume
12. When designating countries and continents, adjectival rather than nominative modifiers should be used, e.g.
American spurred-gentian Brazilian peppertree
Canadian thistle European bellflower
Jamaican-broom Japanese honeysuckle
Mexican-orange Persian rye grass
13. When describing geographic direction, adjectival rather than nominative modifiers should be used, e.g.
northern silverpuffs southern threeawn
eastern teaberry western sea-purslane
14. When selecting modifiers for related species, parallel structure should be sought, e.g.
broad-leaf sand-verbena narrow-leaf sand-verbena
false babystars true babystars
johnnynip johnnytuck
king-of-the-meadow queen-of-the-meadow
northern adder’s tongue southern adder’s-tongue
small-whorl mallow large-whorl mallow
15. For very wide-ranging species, use of local or provincial names should be avoided, e.g.
common St. John’s-wort (not Klamathweed, presumably a local name in the Pacific states)
common dandelion (not pee-da-bed, local name in northeastern U.S.)
lyre-leaf rockcress (not Kamchatka rockcress, local name in Pacific Northwest)
small cranberry (not wren’s-egg cranberry, local name used mostly along the coast of Maine)
16. Modifiers should be concise, yet meaningfully descriptive, using the most colorful adjectives and reflecting uniqueness of habitat, geography, toxic or medicinal properties, and flower morphology, color, or fragrance.
17. When selecting modifiers, mere English translation of Latin or Greek epithets should be avoided. Avoid surnames of individuals as modifiers because such modifiers provide very limited information on properties, characteristics, and other features of a plant.
18. In selecting modifiers, the word “common” and other rather shallow descriptive adjectives should similarly be avoided except when steeped in tradition (e.g., common dandelion).
VI. Fanciful Phrases as Common Names
Fanciful phrases composed of two or more words or elements as common names are encouraged. They are often used as substitute names for group names, or they can be used as the accepted group names. Such names should be governed by the guidelines established for group names. Phrase names, especially lengthy ones, should be hyphenated between each word or element, e.g.
devil’s-darning-needles forget-me-not
herb-of-the-crown jack-in-the-pulpit
kiss-me-over-the-garden-gate love-in-a-mist
old-man-in-the-spring midnight-horror
NOTE: Fanciful phrases, however, should be limited to five or six words or elements, thus avoiding excessively lengthy names such as welcome-home-husband-however-drunk-you-be.
VII. General Guidelines for Spelling
Consistency of spelling and form should be sought for both group names and modifiers. The following suggestions are provided for words with alternate spellings or forms:
burr (not bur)
coastal (not coast)
county should be spelled out (not abbreviated as co.)
forked (not forking)
gray (not grey)
gypsum (not gyp)
mountain should be spelled out and singular (not abbreviated as mt., mts., mtn, or mtns.; however, Mt. is preferred to Mount)
pygmy (not pigmy)
savannah (not savanna)
woolly (not wooly)
Allegheny for the mountain range (not Alleghany)
Great Smoky Mountain for the mountain range (not Smoky Mountain)
Guadalupe Mountain for the mountain range (not Guadeloupe)
Rocky Mountain for the mountain range (not Rocky Mountains)
Sierran for the mountain range (not Sierra nor Sierra Nevada)
Guadeloupe for the country (not Guadalupe)
Chihuahuan for the desert (not Chihuahua)
Mojave for the desert (not Mohave)
Sonoran for the desert (not Sonora)
St. (not Saint)
greater is preferred to larger
lesser is preferred to smaller
papery is preferred to membranaceous (and membranous)
pinewoods or pineland is preferred to pine
seaside is preferred to seabeach
VIII. General Guidelines for Capitalization
The following guidelines have been prepared to assist in the use of capitalization of proper nouns and adjectives for common names.
1. Capitalize surnames of individuals used in group names and modifiers, e.g.
Bradbury-bush Douglas-fir
Engelmann’s flat sedge Gray’s lily
Johnson grass Klein’s evening-primrose
Nuttall’s oak Small’s ragwort
2. Capitalize names honoring nationalities and human races
Chinese hemlock-parsley Italian lords-and-ladies
Hopi-tea Norwegian whitlow-grass
New Zealand-flax Barbados aloe
3. Capitalize the names of gods, goddesses, and other religious figures, including names referring to the deity or holy works
Adam-and-Eve Adam’s-needle
Christmas-rose Crucifixion-vine
Easter-bonnet Joseph’s-coat
Hercules-club Heart-of-Jesus
Holy Ghost skyrocket Joshua-tree
Our-Lord’s-candle Venus’ flytrap
4. Capitalize names suggesting titles, canonizations, and ranks of honor, e.g.
Aunt Lucy St. Catherine’s-lace
Queen Ann’s-lace St. John’s-wort
NOTE: Capitalization should not be used when specific reference to an individual is not provided, e.g.
king orchid kingdevil
madam-gorgon princess-of-the-night
princesstree queen spleenwort
5. Capitalize international and national place names and national subdivisions such as continents, countries, states, counties, parishes, provinces, and territories e.g.
American holly Asian sword fern
European mountain-ash Florida bear-grass
Ohio buckeye New York fern
Shasta County leopardbane Yukon lupine
6. Capitalize local place names, including the names of cities, parks, and other recreational areas, e.g.
Everglades palm Grand Canyon glow-weed
San Diego bear-grass Santa Fe phlox
Yosemite woolly-sunflower Yellowstone rockcress
7. Capitalize geographic directions only when they designate specific areas or regions, e.g.
East Indian holly fern North Pacific whitlow-grass
North African knapweed South American saltbush
NOTE: Mere directional adjectives should not be capitalized, e.g.
northern birch southern cat-tail
western Australian flooded gum western sand-parsley
8. Capitalize modifiers that comprise part of a proper name and are written in the singular, such as:
bay basin
butte canyon
cape county
creek delta
desert flat
gap glacier
gulf harbor
head island
lake Mt.
mountain ocean
pass peak
peninsula plain
plateau point
range ridge
river sea
straight valley
Examples of these modifiers include:
Blue Ridge bittercress Cape Thompson whitlow-grass
Grant’s Pass willowherb Great Basin tumble-mustard
Mt. Lassen fairyfan Rocky Mountain bluebells
Syes Butte plains-mustard Wind River tansy-mustard
IX. True Group Names
The following genera and plant groups are listed with their “true group” names. All other genera referencing these common names should be considered misapplied.
Abies – fir
Abutilon – velvetleaf
Achillea – yarrow
Achyranthes – chaff-flower
Actaea – bugbane
Aesculus – buckeye
Ageratina – snakeroot
Agropyron – wheat grass
Alisma – water-plantain
Allium – garlic, leek, onion
Alnus – alder
Alocasia – taro
Aloe – aloe
Amaranthus – pigweed, tumbleweed
Anchusa – bugloss
Andropogon – bluestem, broom grass
Antirrhinum – snapdragon
Apocynum – dogbane
Arachis – peanut
Arctostaphylos – manzanita
Aristolochia – birthwort, Dutchman’s-pipe
Aster – aster
Bambuseae – bamboo
Brandegea – starvine
Brassica – cabbage, mustard, rape
Brickellia – brickellbush
bryophyte – moss
Buxus – box
Calluna – heather
Camassia – camas
Campanula – bellflower
Capparis – caper
Capsicum – pepper
Carex – sedge
Carum – caraway
Castanea – chestnut
Cedrus – cedar
Chrysolepis – chinkapin
Cichorium – chicory
Cinnamomum – cinnamon
Cirsium – thistle
Cissus – treebine
Citrus – orange, lemon, lime
Convolvulus – bindweed
Corallorrhiza – coralroot
Corchorus – jute
Corylus – hazel
Croton – croton
Cucumis – cucumber, melon
Cucurbita – pumpkin, squash
Cupressus – cypress
Cydista – withe
Cydonia – quince
Cynara – artichoke
Cytisus – broom
Dianthus – pink
Digitalis – foxglove
Diodia – buttonweed
Dioscorea – yam
Dodecahema – spinyherb
Dracocephalum – dragonhead
Drypetes – rosewood
Elymus – wild rye
Epilobium – fireweed, willowherb
Erica – heath
Eucalyptus – gum
Eugenia – stopper
Euphorbia – spurge
Fagopyrum – buckwheat
Fendlera – Fendlerbush
Ficus – fig
Foeniculum – fennel
Fragaria – strawberry
Fraxinus – ash
Gaylussacia – huckleberry
Gentiana – gentian
Geum – avens
Gnaphalium – cudweed
Gossypium – cotton
Helianthus – sunflower
Helleborus – hellebore
Hemizonia – tarweed
Houstonia – bluet
Humulus – hop
Hyacinthus – hyacinth
Hyssopus – hyssop
Ilex – holly
Indigofera – indigo
Ipomoea – morning-glory
Isoetes – quillwort
Jasminum – jasmine
Juglans – walnut
Juncus – rush
Lactuca – lettuce
Lagerstroemia – crape-myrtle
Laurus – laurel
Lavandula – lavender
Levisticum – lovage
Ligustrum – privet
Lilium – lily
Linaria – toadflax
Linum – flax
Liriodendron – tuliptree
Lithospermum – gromwell
Loeseliastrum – calico
Lomatium – desert-parsley
Lonicera – honeysuckle
Lychnis – campion
Lythrum – loosestrife
Malus – apple
Malva – mallow
Marrubium – horehound
Matthiola – stock
Mentha – mint
Mercurialis – mercury
Mesembryanthemum – iceplant
Mimulus – monkey-flower
Mirabilis – four-o’clock
Morus – mulberry
Musa – banana
Myosotis – forget-me-not
Myrrhis – anise
Myrtus – myrtle
Nelumbo – lotus
Nicotiana – tobacco
Obolaria – pennywort
Ocimum – basil
Olea – olive
Oryza – rice
Paeonia – peony
Panicum – millet, panic grass
Papaver – poppy
Pastinaca – parsnip
Penstemon – beardtongue
Petroselinum – parsley
Phaseolus – bean
Phoradendron – mistletoe
Phragmites – reed
Pimenta – allspice
Pinguicula – butterwort
Pinus – pine
Plantago – plantain
Polygala – milkwort
Pontederia – pickerelweed
Portulaca – purslane
Potamogeton – pondweed
Primula – primrose
Proboscidea – unicorn-plant
Prunus – almond, cherry, peach, plum
Psidium – guava
Pyrola – wintergreen
Pyrus – pear
Quercus – oak
Ranunculus – buttercup
Raphanus – radish
Rhamnus – buckthorn
Rheum – rhubarb
Rhus – sumac
Ribes – currant, gooseberry
Robinia – locust
Rosa – rose
Rosmarinus – rosemary
Rubia – madder
Rudbeckia – coneflower
Rumex – sorrel
Ruta – rue
Sabal – palmetto
Salix – willow
Salvia – sage
Sambucus – elder
Santalum – sandalwood
Sarcodes – snowplant
Satureja – savory
Saxifraga – saxifrage
Scirpus – bulrush
Scrophularia – figwort
Scutellaria – skullcap
Sedum – stonecrop
Selinocarpus – moonpod
Sequoia – redwood
Sideritis – ironwort
Solanum – nightshade
Solidago – goldenrod
Spinacia – spinach
Sullivantia – coolwort
Swertia – felwort
Swietenia – mahogany
Symphoricarpos – snowberry
Symphytum – comfrey
Symplocarpus – skunk-cabbage
Tagetes – marigold
Talinum – fameflower
Tamarindus – tamarind
Tanacetum – tansy
Taraxacum – dandelion
Teucrium – germander
Thalictrum – meadow-rue
Thuja – arborvitae
Thymus – thyme
Tillandsia – airplant
Tragopogon – salsify
Trichostema – bluecurls
Trifolium – clover
Tsuga – hemlock
Tussilago – colt’s-foot
Ulmus – elm
Urtica – nettle
Vallisneria – eel-grass
Verbascum – mullein
Verbena – vervain
Vicia – vetch
Vinca – periwinkle
Viola – violet
Vitis – grape
Wolffia – watermeal
Zea – corn
Zingiber – ginger
All genera of the following plant families (or major plant groups) represent true types; thus, their group names should not be hyphenated:
Arecaceae – all names referencing palm
Cactaceae – all names referencing cactus
Cucurbitaceae – all names referencing gourd
Cyperaceae – all names referencing sedge
Orchidaceae – all names referencing orchid
Poaceae – all names referencing grass
Pteridophytes – all names referencing fern and “fern-allies”
The following words are of indeterminate application, not representing true groups, and thus can be used in various group names or fanciful phrases:
balm balsam
bay briar
creeper cress
daisy flag
haw hedge
ivy mampoo
mangrove osier
rocket rodwood